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A loanword (or loan word) is a word directly taken into one language from another with little or no translation. By contrast, a calque or loan translation is a related concept whereby it is the Meaning (linguistics) or idiom that is borrowed rather than the lexical item itself. The word loanword is itself a calque of the German language Lehnwort. Loanwords can also be called "borrowings".

Classes of borrowed words Certain classes of words are more commonly borrowed than others, usually words for exotic concepts or ideas. What is "exotic" varies from language to language. Thus, English names for creatures not native to Great Britain are almost always loanwords, and most of the technical vocabulary referring to European classical music is borrowed from Italian language.

By contrast, function words such as pronouns, numbers, and words referring to universal concepts, are usually not borrowed, but have been in some cases.

Classification of Borrowings The studies by Werner Betz (1949, 1959), Einar Haugen (1950, also 1956), and Uriel Weinreich (1953) are regarded as the classical theoretical works on loan influenceCf. the two survey articles by Oksaar (1996: 4f.), Stanforth (2002) and Grzega (2003, 2004).. The basic theoretical statements all depart from Betz’s nomenclature. Duckworth (1977) enlarges Betz’s scheme by the type “partial substitution” and supplements the system with English termsThe following comments and examples are taken from Grzega, Joachim (2004), Bezeichnungswandel: Wie, Warum, Wozu?, Heidelberg: Winter, p. 139, and Grzega, Joachim (2003), “Borrowing as a Word-Finding Process in Cognitive Historical Onomasiology”, Onomasiology Online 4: 22-42.:

  • importation
  • foreign word = non-integrated word from a foreign language, e.g. E café (from French); Sp. whisk(e)y (from English) (*the word whiskey in fact comes from the Irish phrase "uisce beatha" which means the water of life, "aqua vitae"); E weltanschauung (< G Weltanschauung); It. mouse ‘computer device’ (< E mouse ‘rodent; computer device’);
  • loan word = integrated word from a foreign language, e.g. E music (from French); Sp. güisqui (from English);
  • partial substitution: composite words, in which one part is borrowed, another one substituted, e.g. OE Saturnes dæg ‘Saturday’ (< Lat. Saturnis dies), G Showgeschäft ‘literally: show-business’ (< E show business), G Live-Sendung ‘literally: live-broadcast’ (< E live broadcast)
  • substitution
  • loan coinage
  • loan formation
  • loan translation = translation of the elements of the foreign word, e.g. OE Monan dæg ‘Monday’ (< Lat. Lunae dies), Fr. gratte-ciel and Sp. rasca·cielos ‘both literally: scrape-sky’ (< E skyscraper), E world view (< G Welt·anschauung), AmSp. manzana de Adán (< E Adam’s apple; vs. EurSp. nuez la garganta ‘literally: nut the throat’);
  • loan rendering = translation of part of the elements of the foreign word, e.g. E brother·hood (< Lat. frater·nitas Lat. frater ‘brother’ + suffix), G Wolken·kratzer ‘literally: clouds-scraper’ (< E sky·scraper);
  • loan creation coinage independent of the foreign word, but created out of the desire to replace a foreign word, e.g. E brandy (< Fr. cognac);
  • loan meaning = indigenous word to which the meaning of the foreign word is transferred, e.g. OE cniht ‘servant + disciple of Jesus’ (< Lat. discipulus ‘student, disciple of Jesus’), OE heofon ‘sky, abode of the gods + Christian heaven’ (< Lat. caelum ‘sky, abode of the gods, Christian heaven’), G Maus and Fr souris ‘rodent + computer device’ (< E mouse ‘rodent, computer device’).


    • On the basis of an importation-substitution distinction, Haugen (1950: 214f.) distinguishes three basic groups of borrowings: “(1) Loanwords show morphemic importation without substitution. . .. (2) Loanblends show morphemic substitution as well as importation. . .. (3) Loanshifts show morphemic substitution without importation”. Haugen has later refined (1956) his model in a review of Gneuss’s (1955) book on Old English loan coinages, whose classification, in turn, is the one by Betz (1949) again.

    Weinreich (1953: 47ff.) differentiates between two mechanisms of lexical interference, namely those initiated by simple words and those initiated by compound words and phrases. Weinreich (1953: 47) defines simple words “from the point of view of the bilinguals who perform the transfer, rather than that of the descriptive linguist. Accordingly, the category ‘simple’ words also includes compounds that are transferred in unanalysed form”. After this general classification, Weinreich then resorts to Betz’s (1949) terminology.

    Models that try to integrate borrowing in an overall classification of vocabulary change, or onomasiology change, have recently been proposed by Peter Koch (2002) and Joachim Grzega (2003, 2004).

    Beyond words Idiomatic expressions and phrases, sometimes translated word-for-word, can be borrowed, usually from a language that has "prestige" at the time. Often, a borrowed idiom is used as a euphemism for a less polite term in the original language. In English, this has usually been list of Latin phrases from the Latin language and Gallicisms from French language. If the phrase is translated word-for-word, it is known as a calque.

    Loanwords in English English language has many loanwords. In 1973, a computerised survey of about 80,000 words in the old Shorter Oxford Dictionary (3rd edition) was published in Ordered Profusion by Thomas Finkenstaedt and Dieter Wolff. Their estimates for the origin of English words were as follows:



    However, if the frequency of use of words is considered, words from Old and Middle English occupy the vast majority.

    The reasons for English's vast borrowing include:

    This lack of restrictions makes it comparatively easy for the English language to incorporate new words. Compare this with Japanese language, where the English word "club" (itself originally from Old Norse) was turned into "kurabu" because of Japanese's inflexible syllable structure. However, the English pronunciations of loanwords often differ from the original pronunciations to such a degree that a native speaker of the language it was borrowed from is not able to recognize it as a loanword when spoken.

    English often borrows words from the cultures and languages of the British Colonies. For example there are at least 20 words from Hindi, including syce/sais, dinghy, chutney, pundit, wallah, pajama/pyjamas, bungalow and jodhpur. Other examples include trek, aardvark, laager and veld from Afrikaans, shirang, amok (Malay language) and sjambok (Malay via Afrikaans).

    English also aquires loanwords in which foreign sounds are part of the foreign pronunciation. For example, the Hawaiian language word Lava is used by geologists to specify lava that is relatively thick, chunky, and rough. The Hawaiian spelling indicates the two glottal stops in the word, but the usual English pronunciation, , does not contain the glottal stop. In addition, the English spelling usually removes the okina and macron diacrtici Press|year=1986|edition=revised and enlarged edition|isbn=0824807030|page=389-->.

    Affixes The majority of English affixes, such as "un-", "-ing", and "-ly", were present in older forms in Old English. However, a few English affixes are borrowed. For example, the agentive suffix -er, which is very prolific, is borrowed ultimately from Latin. The verbal suffix '-ize' ('-ise' in British English) ultimately comes, via Old French and via Latin, from Ancient Greek.

    Other languages Direct loans, expressions translated word-by-word, or even grammatical constructions and orthographical conventions from English are called anglicisms. Similarly, loans from Swedish language - like the word smörgåsbord - are called sveticisms or svecisms. In French, the result of perceived over-use of English loanwords and expressions is called franglais. English loanwords in French include 'le weekend', 'le job' (in France) or 'la job' (in Canada) and 'le biftek' (beefsteak). This has so outraged French purists that various French institutions spend much time and energy to keep the language pure. Denglish is English influence on German language. Another popular term is Spanglish, the English influence on the Spanish language and Dunglish the English influence on the Dutch language.

    During the Ottoman Turks period, Turkish literature became heavily influenced by Persian language and Arabic language borrowings. During more than 600 years of the Ottoman Empire, the literary and official language of the empire was a mixture of Turkish, Persian, and Arabic, which is now called Ottoman Turkish language, considerably differing from the everyday spoken Turkish of the time. Many Turkish, Persian and Arabic words were also loaned to other languages of the empire, such as Bulgarian language and Serbian language. After the empire fell in World War I and the Republic of Turkey was founded, the Turkish language underwent an extensive language reform led by the newly founded Turkish Language Association, during which List of replaced loanwords in Turkish were replaced with equivalent words derived from Turkic languages roots. The language reform was a part of the ongoing cultural reform of the time, in turn a part in the broader framework of Atatürk's Reforms, and included the introduction of the new Turkish alphabet. Turkish also has many loanwords derived from French, such as pantalon for 'trousers' and komik for 'funny' (from Fr. comique), all of them pronounced very similarly (except for the French pronunciation of the letter 'r').

    The Italian government has recently expressed its displeasure over the borrowing of English words and syntax in Italian. English words are often used where they are more convenient than a longer Italian expression, as in "computer" for elaboratore elettronico or "week-end" for finesettimana; but also where equally convenient Italian words already exist, as in "fashion" for moda and "meeting" for conferenza.

    Reborrowing It is possible for a word to travel from one language to another and then back to the original language in a different form, a process called reborrowing. A specific example of this is the French "le biftek", which is borrowed from the English "beefsteak", while the English "beef" is originally from the French "le bœuf".

    Literature

    References See also

    External links

    A loanword (or loan word) is a word directly taken into one language from another with little or no translation. By contrast, a calque or loan translation is a related concept whereby it is the Meaning (linguistics) or idiom that is borrowed rather than the lexical item itself. The word loanword is itself a calque of the German language Lehnwort. Loanwords can also be called "borrowings".

    Classes of borrowed words Certain classes of words are more commonly borrowed than others, usually words for exotic concepts or ideas. What is "exotic" varies from language to language. Thus, English names for creatures not native to Great Britain are almost always loanwords, and most of the technical vocabulary referring to European classical music is borrowed from Italian language.

    By contrast, function words such as pronouns, numbers, and words referring to universal concepts, are usually not borrowed, but have been in some cases.

    Classification of Borrowings The studies by Werner Betz (1949, 1959), Einar Haugen (1950, also 1956), and Uriel Weinreich (1953) are regarded as the classical theoretical works on loan influenceCf. the two survey articles by Oksaar (1996: 4f.), Stanforth (2002) and Grzega (2003, 2004).. The basic theoretical statements all depart from Betz’s nomenclature. Duckworth (1977) enlarges Betz’s scheme by the type “partial substitution” and supplements the system with English termsThe following comments and examples are taken from Grzega, Joachim (2004), Bezeichnungswandel: Wie, Warum, Wozu?, Heidelberg: Winter, p. 139, and Grzega, Joachim (2003), “Borrowing as a Word-Finding Process in Cognitive Historical Onomasiology”, Onomasiology Online 4: 22-42.:

  • importation
  • foreign word = non-integrated word from a foreign language, e.g. E café (from French); Sp. whisk(e)y (from English) (*the word whiskey in fact comes from the Irish phrase "uisce beatha" which means the water of life, "aqua vitae"); E weltanschauung (< G Weltanschauung); It. mouse ‘computer device’ (< E mouse ‘rodent; computer device’);
  • loan word = integrated word from a foreign language, e.g. E music (from French); Sp. güisqui (from English);
  • partial substitution: composite words, in which one part is borrowed, another one substituted, e.g. OE Saturnes dæg ‘Saturday’ (< Lat. Saturnis dies), G Showgeschäft ‘literally: show-business’ (< E show business), G Live-Sendung ‘literally: live-broadcast’ (< E live broadcast)
  • substitution
  • loan coinage
  • loan formation
  • loan translation = translation of the elements of the foreign word, e.g. OE Monan dæg ‘Monday’ (< Lat. Lunae dies), Fr. gratte-ciel and Sp. rasca·cielos ‘both literally: scrape-sky’ (< E skyscraper), E world view (< G Welt·anschauung), AmSp. manzana de Adán (< E Adam’s apple; vs. EurSp. nuez la garganta ‘literally: nut the throat’);
  • loan rendering = translation of part of the elements of the foreign word, e.g. E brother·hood (< Lat. frater·nitas Lat. frater ‘brother’ + suffix), G Wolken·kratzer ‘literally: clouds-scraper’ (< E sky·scraper);
  • loan creation coinage independent of the foreign word, but created out of the desire to replace a foreign word, e.g. E brandy (< Fr. cognac);
  • loan meaning = indigenous word to which the meaning of the foreign word is transferred, e.g. OE cniht ‘servant + disciple of Jesus’ (< Lat. discipulus ‘student, disciple of Jesus’), OE heofon ‘sky, abode of the gods + Christian heaven’ (< Lat. caelum ‘sky, abode of the gods, Christian heaven’), G Maus and Fr souris ‘rodent + computer device’ (< E mouse ‘rodent, computer device’).


    • On the basis of an importation-substitution distinction, Haugen (1950: 214f.) distinguishes three basic groups of borrowings: “(1) Loanwords show morphemic importation without substitution. . .. (2) Loanblends show morphemic substitution as well as importation. . .. (3) Loanshifts show morphemic substitution without importation”. Haugen has later refined (1956) his model in a review of Gneuss’s (1955) book on Old English loan coinages, whose classification, in turn, is the one by Betz (1949) again.

    Weinreich (1953: 47ff.) differentiates between two mechanisms of lexical interference, namely those initiated by simple words and those initiated by compound words and phrases. Weinreich (1953: 47) defines simple words “from the point of view of the bilinguals who perform the transfer, rather than that of the descriptive linguist. Accordingly, the category ‘simple’ words also includes compounds that are transferred in unanalysed form”. After this general classification, Weinreich then resorts to Betz’s (1949) terminology.

    Models that try to integrate borrowing in an overall classification of vocabulary change, or onomasiology change, have recently been proposed by Peter Koch (2002) and Joachim Grzega (2003, 2004).

    Beyond words Idiomatic expressions and phrases, sometimes translated word-for-word, can be borrowed, usually from a language that has "prestige" at the time. Often, a borrowed idiom is used as a euphemism for a less polite term in the original language. In English, this has usually been list of Latin phrases from the Latin language and Gallicisms from French language. If the phrase is translated word-for-word, it is known as a calque.

    Loanwords in English English language has many loanwords. In 1973, a computerised survey of about 80,000 words in the old Shorter Oxford Dictionary (3rd edition) was published in Ordered Profusion by Thomas Finkenstaedt and Dieter Wolff. Their estimates for the origin of English words were as follows:



    However, if the frequency of use of words is considered, words from Old and Middle English occupy the vast majority.

    The reasons for English's vast borrowing include:

    This lack of restrictions makes it comparatively easy for the English language to incorporate new words. Compare this with Japanese language, where the English word "club" (itself originally from Old Norse) was turned into "kurabu" because of Japanese's inflexible syllable structure. However, the English pronunciations of loanwords often differ from the original pronunciations to such a degree that a native speaker of the language it was borrowed from is not able to recognize it as a loanword when spoken.

    English often borrows words from the cultures and languages of the British Colonies. For example there are at least 20 words from Hindi, including syce/sais, dinghy, chutney, pundit, wallah, pajama/pyjamas, bungalow and jodhpur. Other examples include trek, aardvark, laager and veld from Afrikaans, shirang, amok (Malay language) and sjambok (Malay via Afrikaans).

    English also aquires loanwords in which foreign sounds are part of the foreign pronunciation. For example, the Hawaiian language word Lava is used by geologists to specify lava that is relatively thick, chunky, and rough. The Hawaiian spelling indicates the two glottal stops in the word, but the usual English pronunciation, , does not contain the glottal stop. In addition, the English spelling usually removes the okina and macron diacrtici Press|year=1986|edition=revised and enlarged edition|isbn=0824807030|page=389-->.

    Affixes The majority of English affixes, such as "un-", "-ing", and "-ly", were present in older forms in Old English. However, a few English affixes are borrowed. For example, the agentive suffix -er, which is very prolific, is borrowed ultimately from Latin. The verbal suffix '-ize' ('-ise' in British English) ultimately comes, via Old French and via Latin, from Ancient Greek.

    Other languages Direct loans, expressions translated word-by-word, or even grammatical constructions and orthographical conventions from English are called anglicisms. Similarly, loans from Swedish language - like the word smörgåsbord - are called sveticisms or svecisms. In French, the result of perceived over-use of English loanwords and expressions is called franglais. English loanwords in French include 'le weekend', 'le job' (in France) or 'la job' (in Canada) and 'le biftek' (beefsteak). This has so outraged French purists that various French institutions spend much time and energy to keep the language pure. Denglish is English influence on German language. Another popular term is Spanglish, the English influence on the Spanish language and Dunglish the English influence on the Dutch language.

    During the Ottoman Turks period, Turkish literature became heavily influenced by Persian language and Arabic language borrowings. During more than 600 years of the Ottoman Empire, the literary and official language of the empire was a mixture of Turkish, Persian, and Arabic, which is now called Ottoman Turkish language, considerably differing from the everyday spoken Turkish of the time. Many Turkish, Persian and Arabic words were also loaned to other languages of the empire, such as Bulgarian language and Serbian language. After the empire fell in World War I and the Republic of Turkey was founded, the Turkish language underwent an extensive language reform led by the newly founded Turkish Language Association, during which List of replaced loanwords in Turkish were replaced with equivalent words derived from Turkic languages roots. The language reform was a part of the ongoing cultural reform of the time, in turn a part in the broader framework of Atatürk's Reforms, and included the introduction of the new Turkish alphabet. Turkish also has many loanwords derived from French, such as pantalon for 'trousers' and komik for 'funny' (from Fr. comique), all of them pronounced very similarly (except for the French pronunciation of the letter 'r').

    The Italian government has recently expressed its displeasure over the borrowing of English words and syntax in Italian. English words are often used where they are more convenient than a longer Italian expression, as in "computer" for elaboratore elettronico or "week-end" for finesettimana; but also where equally convenient Italian words already exist, as in "fashion" for moda and "meeting" for conferenza.

    Reborrowing It is possible for a word to travel from one language to another and then back to the original language in a different form, a process called reborrowing. A specific example of this is the French "le biftek", which is borrowed from the English "beefsteak", while the English "beef" is originally from the French "le bœuf".

    Literature

    References See also

    External links



    Loanword - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    A loanword (or loan word) is a word directly taken into one language from another with little or no translation. By contrast, a calque or loan translation is a related concept ...

    English 'Loan Words'
    Some of the more interesting words that have been imported from sometimes relatively obscure languages.

    AskOxford: loanword
    loanword • noun a word adopted from a foreign language with little or no modification. Perform another search of the Compact Oxford English Dictionary

    loanword - Definitions from Dictionary.com
    Definitions of loanword at Dictionary.com. ... a word in one language that has been borrowed from another language and usually naturalized, as wine, taken into Old English from ...

    loanword - Hutchinson encyclopedia article about loanword
    Hutchinson encyclopedia article about loanword. loanword. Information about loanword in the Hutchinson encyclopedia.

    loanword - definition of loanword by the Free Online Dictionary ...
    Definition of loanword in the Online Dictionary. Meaning of loanword. Pronunciation of loanword. Translations of loanword. loanword synonyms, loanword antonyms. Information about ...

    loanword - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary
    Definition of loanword from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary with audio pronunciations, thesaurus, Word of the Day, and word games. ... a word taken from another language and ...

    loanword definition of loanword in the Free Online Encyclopedia.
    Encyclopedia article about loanword. Information about loanword in the Columbia Encyclopedia, Computer Desktop Encyclopedia, computing dictionary.

    loanword -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia
    Britannica online encyclopedia article on loanword:Languages borrow words freely from one another. Usually this happens when some new object or institution is developed for which ...

    loanword - Wiktionary
    loanword (plural loanwords) A word directly taken into one language from another one with little or no translation. The word exit is a loanword from Latin.

     

    Loanword



     
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